[Publication] The effects of extreme weather conditions on workers’ health and safety

This study, requested by the European Parliament’s Committee on Employment and Social Affairs, assesses how extreme weather conditions (worsening due to climate change) affect occupational safety and health (OSH) across the European Union (EU). It analyses how risks vary by region, sector, and worker group, evaluates the adequacy of existing policy frameworks at the EU and Member State level, and outlines recommendations to better protect workers and workplaces in a changing climate.

Hazards such as heatwaves, wildfires, floods, storms, and cold spells are becoming more common and more intense. These conditions pose not only physical health risks, such as heat stroke, injuries, and respiratory illnesses, but also mental health challenges, including anxiety and stress. The impacts include increased risk of accidents, illnesses, and a loss of productivity across the labour market. Among all weather-related risks, heat has emerged as the most pressing OSH hazard. Research shows that even moderate heat can significantly reduce labour productivity, with costs already rising and likely to grow further in the coming years.

Certain economic sectors are more exposed than others. Agriculture, construction, transport, and emergency services are particularly affected due to the nature of their work. In addition, sectors such as manufacturing, office work, public utilities and waste management, though less visible in policy discussions, face comparable risks, particularly during heatwaves, and deserve greater attention.

Some groups of workers are particularly vulnerable. Outdoor workers face direct exposure to extreme temperatures and adverse weather. Similarly, the self-employed, platform workers, migrants, older individuals, and those with chronic health conditions often have fewer resources to adapt and may be excluded from formal protections. Indoor workers in poorly ventilated or overheated buildings are also increasingly at risk, especially during heatwaves, which are becoming longer and more frequent.

The economic implications of climate-related OSH risks are substantial. Heat-related productivity losses alone are estimated to cost the EU economy approximately EUR 17 billion annually by 2030. When combined with related healthcare expenses, insurance and compensation payouts, administrative burdens, and intangible costs such as reduced quality of life, the overall burden of extreme weather on the EU labour market is considerable and expected to grow.

The current policy framework for managing these risks is built on the EU’s occupational safety and health legislation, including the OSH Framework Directive 89/391/EEC and other related directives. These rules require employers to assess and control all workplace risks, which implicitly include heat, cold, storms and floods. In practice, these risks are addressed in a fragmented manner, as national—and in some Member States, regional—policies determine how workers are protected on the ground. In relation to this, four categories of national approaches have been identified, depending on legal provisions, financial and guidance support, as well as most recent policy responses:

• Type A – Advanced integrated: explicit legal triggers + guidance + some financing (e.g., Belgium, Spain, Austria);
• Type B – Legislation-focused, support-light: prescriptive rules but little targeted funding or large-scale guidance (e.g., Romania; Czechia; mostly indoor standards);
• Type C – Guidance-centric: minimal prescriptive legislation; heavy reliance on guidance, social dialogue and general welfare (e.g., Finland, Denmark); and
• Type D – Emerging/adaptive: rules in flux reacting to recent events (e.g., Greece, Italy, Slovenia).

The study offers the following recommendations to strengthen climate resilience in occupational safety and health:

• Improve data collection and evidence base: Develop EU-wide guidelines to harmonise data on extreme weather-related OSH impacts.
• Support enforcement and guidance: Equip labour inspectorates with training and tools to assess climate-specific risks. Promote user-friendly sectoral risk assessment templates, particularly for SMEs.
• Invest in applied research and knowledge sharing: Fund studies and tools that evaluate the effectiveness and cost-efficiency of climate-adaptive OSH interventions.
• Foster cross-sectoral coordination: Embed OSH considerations into broader climate adaptation and public health strategies at national and EU levels.
• Strengthen protection for vulnerable workers: Ensure communication and training materials are accessible to all workers regardless of contract type, language, or status.
• Promote social dialogue: Encourage the inclusion of weather-related protections in collective bargaining agreements and OSH catalogues to tailor responses to sectoral and regional realities.
• Clarify and enhance EU-level OSH protections: Introduce a dedicated instrument on occupational heat or adapt existing directives to reflect climate-related risks. Consider harmonised thresholds based on indicators such as the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT).
• Avoid maladaptation: Prioritise engineering and organisational controls (e.g. shade, ventilation, workload management) over personal responsibility or energy-intensive measures such as air-conditioning.

This study underscores the urgent need to future-proof Europe’s OSH systems against the growing risks posed by more frequent extreme weather conditions and events. While responsibility for occupational safety and health primarily lies with national authorities, the diversity of approaches and uneven capacities among Member States highlight the value of coordinated EU-level action — to ensure consistency in protection standards, foster knowledge exchange, and close existing regulatory and enforcement gaps across the Union.